FOR JANUARY 2001 ISSUE

THE POISON SLEUTHS

DEATH BY MANDRAKE

-Dr. Anil Aggrawal

“Good morning doctor. Oh, my God, what are you doing today? You have the dead body of a young man today. What happened to him? Please tell me.”

“Good morning Tarun. The name of this young man is Sukhram, and he is about 23 years old. He had a friend called Mansukh about the same age. Both of them loved the same girl Sudha, and often there used to be some tension between the two regarding her. Yesterday night Mansukh came to Sukhram’s house along with a bottle of alcohol, and the two had alcohol together. After Mansukh left, Sukhram started feeling sick. He complained of dryness of mouth, with nausea and vomiting, difficulty in swallowing, blurred vision and drowsiness. He was living alone, so there was no one to take him to the hospital. He immediately contacted some of his neighbors who took him to the local hospital. There the doctor started investigating him, but today morning he died. I have talked to the doctor in the local hospital, and they tell me that his pupils were very wide, he had a dry hot skin and he suffered from hallucinations too.”

“So what do you make of his death doctor?”

“Tarun, after studying his signs and symptoms, I can think of two or three poisons, but the one most likely in this case is mandragorine.”

“Mandragorine? Never heard of this poison. Looks like we are once again to one of your classic poison stories. Let us first know a little bit about mandragorine.”

“Tarun, Mandragorine is an alkaloid, which comes from the Mandrake plant. Before proceeding further, I may tell you that alkaloid is a term used for certain plant poisons, which are bitter in taste and they are mildly alkaline in reaction. Most of them contain a nitrogen atom in their molecule. They are poisonous to both animals and man, and plants presumably produce them to save themselves from being eaten by animals. An interesting fact is that all alkaloids are so named that their names end in a suffix “–ine”. Many alkaloids are known, some of the better known being morphine, codeine, nicotine, strychnine, quinine, cocaine, atropine and so on. Mandragorine is also an alkaloid as I told you earlier, and now you can perhaps know it yourself by seeing that its name ends in “-ine”.”

“Yeah, I can make that out. It is really an interesting fact.”

“Tarun, the name Mandrake is generally given to any of six plant species belonging to the genus Mandragora. These plants are native to the Mediterranean region, i.e. Southern Europe and North Africa and also the Himalayas. It belongs to family Solanaceae. The best-known species, Mandragora officinarum, has a short stem bearing a tuft of ovate flowers, with a thick, large brown fleshy root – resembling quite like a carrot - that is often forked and running 3 to 4 feet into the ground. The leaves are long - nearly a foot long, and 6” wide. The flowers are solitary, with a purple bell-shaped corolla, and the fruit is a fleshy orange-coloured berry. Another species of mandrake, Mandragora autumnalis, flowers in winter on the island of Rhodes, and has beautiful mauve and mauve-white blossoms. The fruit, the golden red love apples, ripens in May.”

“Doctor, you talked about the family Solanaceae. I think we have talked about some poisons belonging to this family before too.’

“Yeah, we talked about Capsicum annum before (See Science Reporter NOVEMBER 1997), which also belongs to Solanaceae. Not all plants of this family are poisonous. In fact, some are edible plants too! Among the most important of these edible plants are the potato (Solanum tuberosum), eggplant (Solanum melongena. Known in Hindi as Baingan) and tomato (Lycopersicon esculentum). Capsicum or pepper (Capsicum annuum and Capsicum frutescens) is commonly used as a condiment in foods, but it can be poisonous too, as we have seen in one of our earlier meetings. Among the poisonous plants of this family are tobacco (Nicotiana tabacum), deadly nightshade, (Atropa belladonna), the poisonous jimsonweed (Datura stramonium) and nightshades (Solanum nigrum, Solanum dulcamara, and others). Many garden ornamentals also belong to this family such as the genera Petunia, Lycium, Solanum, Nicotiana, Datura, Salpiglossis, Browallia, Brunfelsia, Cestrum, Schizanthus, Solandra, Streptosolen, and Nierembergia. In all the family Solanaceae contains about 95 genera and at least 2,400 species, but the single genus Solanum contains almost half of all the species. It may be interesting for you to note that the term Solanaceae comes from  Latin solor, which means “to comfort” or “to soothe”. It appears that this name came from those members of the family which were earlier used as soothing agents, perhaps of datura or tobacco groups. In fact Mandrake too was used as an anaesthetic in olden days. Mandragora Officinarum, of which I am talking about is also known as the European Mandrake. There is another plant known as American Mandrake, which is Podophyllum peltatum. In common parlance, it is known as mayapple. It belongs to the order Ranunculales. It is a completely different plant, with completely different properties, and we must not confuse the two together. There is yet another plant, the English Mandrake which belongs to the genus Bryonia. It is also a comletely different plant.”

“Doctor tell me something specific about European mandrake.”

“Tarun, the history of Mandrake goes back thousands of years. It was one of the best known of all aphrodisiacs. It has been mentioned in the Bible and in the Song of Solomon, where it is referred to as dudaim. The Hebrew word dudaim has been translated in the Song of Solomon as “mandrake.” The word dudaim refers to a fruit with a sweet and agreeable odour much in demand by the male sex. The word is probably derived from dudim (the pleasure of love) and has been translated as “apples.” The Sumerians referred to mandrake as nam-tar, or ‘plague god plant’. The ancient Egyptians used it to increase potency, as an aphrodisiac and to ensure fertility. A mandrake beer was very popular in ancient times. It was also valued in ancient Greece and Rome for its narcotic properties and was used as a surgical anaesthetic. One Coptic name of the plant was devil’s testicle. Even today, the mandrake is a sacred plant among the Bedouins of Israel. A lot of myths and fancies are associated with Mandrake. Perhaps no other plant has as many myths associated with it as Mandrake. Many of the myths arise from the fact that its root is forked and looks very much like a human figure. Technically speaking, mandrake’s root is anthropomorphic, i.e. it resembles a human. Because it had such an eerie resemblance to a human,  Columella named it planta semiliominis which means ‘semi-plant, semi-human’.”

“Who was Columella doctor?”

“His full name is Lucius Junius Moderatus Columella and he lived in 1st century in Spain. He was a Roman soldier and farmer who wrote extensively on agriculture and allied subjects in the hope of arousing a love for farming and a simple life. Reference to this plant is also made by Dioscorides (A.D. 40-90). He was a Greek physician and pharmacologist whose work was the foremost classical source of modern botanical terminology and the leading pharmacological text for sixteen centuries. Dioscorides’ travels as a surgeon with the armies of the Roman emperor Nero provided him an opportunity to study the features, distribution, and medicinal properties of many plants and minerals. Excellent descriptions of nearly 600 plants, including cannabis, colchicum, water hemlock, and peppermint, are contained in his De materia medica. Written in five books around the year 77 A.D., this work deals with approximately 1,000 simple drugs. The medicinal and dietetic value of animal derivatives such as milk and honey is described in the second book, and a synopsis of such chemical drugs as mercury (with directions for its preparation from cinnabar), arsenic (referred to as auripigmentum, the yellow arsenic sulfide), lead acetate, calcium hydrate, and copper oxide is found in the fifth book. He clearly refers to sleeping potions prepared from opium and mandragora as surgical anesthetics ‘to such (people) as shall be cut, or cauteried .... For they do not apprehend the pain because they are overborn (overcome) with dead sleep .... But used too much they make men speechless’. Although the work may be considered little more than a drug collector’s manual by modern standards, the original Greek manuscript, which was copied in at least seven other languages, described most drugs used in medical practice until modern times and served as the primary text of pharmacology until the end of the 15th century.”

“Doctor, you were telling me that many myths and fancies are associated with Mandrake. Please tell me something about them.”

“Tarun, because of its eerie similarity to a human form, it was said to possess a spirit, and was associated with a lot of occult powers. Many so-called witches used to possess this plant, and in fact, in some areas of Europe, possession of Mandrake root was punishable by death. Because it was associated with witchcraft, it was commonly known as Satan’s apple or Circe’s plant. Circe, as you perhaps must be knowing was a sorceress in Greek legend. She was the daughter of Helios, the sun god, and of the ocean nymph Perse. She was able by means of drugs and incantations to change humans into wolves, lions, and swine! This plant was used to invoke not only Circe, but other deities too such as Diana and Saturn.”

“Doctor, you mentioned about some witches. Surely there are none. You are a man of science. Why should you mention these things at all?”

“You are right Tarun. There are no witches, and there never were any. But to understand the significance of this plant, we must go back in history, and it is a historical fact that at one time, several persons - mainly old women - were tried and executed for being witches. It is now known that many of them were politically inconvenient to the rulers of those times, and that is why they were executed under the pretext of being a witch. The fact is that in mediaeval Europe, a common man strongly believed in witches, and many persons involved in clandestine activities were termed as witches. So when I use the term “witch”, it’s in a historical context only. It was commonly believed, that the witches (in medieval ages) harvested the root at night beneath gallows trees - trees where unrepentant criminals, evil since birth, were supposed to have died. The root purportedly sprang up from the criminal’s body drippings, such as semen. In fact, because it was collected from beneath the gallows, in Germany, it came to be called Galgenmännlein, or ‘little man of the gallows’. According to Christian lore, the witch washed the root in wine and wrapped it in silk and velvet. She fed it with sacramental wafers stolen from a church during communion. Because the witches were supposed to be able to fly on their broom-sticks, it was believed that it was Mandrake, which somehow made it possible for them. Because of this, some people made flying potions – solutions which could literally make you fly – with the help of these plants. Perhaps because it was believed to spring from such substances as a dead criminal’s semen, mandrake root was often used in love potions. The fruits of the plant, also called love apples, were believed to increase fertility. Another name by which this plant was known is dudaim, as I have told you earlier.

Many strange effects were supposed to be caused by this plant. It has long been known for its poisonous properties. In ancient times it was used as a narcotic. The crushed root was purported to have caused hallucinations followed by a death-like trance and sleep. The root was also said to have caused insanity. It was used to increase the sexual powers in males, and was given to females to facilitate pregnancy. Another strange belief associated with this plant was that whenever this root was unearthed, it gave a very hideous shriek, and anyone who heard this shriek would either go mad or die soon after. Because of this, an amazing method was developed to unearth this plant.”

“Really? What was that doctor?”

“It was believed that the mandrake could be safely uprooted only in the moonlight, after appropriate prayer and ritual. If one drew three circles around the plant with the tip of a willow wand and tied a black thread from the plant to the collar of a white dog (according to some versions, the dog had to be black!), one would be safe from the demon’s spell when the mandrake was pulled from the ground. Frequently the ground around the root was consecrated with urine, menstrual blood, or sperm. As early as AD 93 the historian Flavius Josephus (37 AD- 100 AD) described the process, stories of which were embellished over the years. To avoid hearing Mandrake’s shrieks when it was being unearthed, dogs were used to gather the root. The dog was starved for several days and then tied to the root, around which a trench had been cut. The owner stood out of earshot and threw a piece of meat, and as the dog leapt for the meat, the mandrake root was pulled from the ground. Some writers actually stated that the dog immediately died, presumably because he had heard the hideous shrieks. There are also references to the use of a sword to draw three circles around the plant and to the fact the plant could be removed only after sundown. In Rumania, sexual magical rituals for excavating the root have continued into the twentieth century. You may be surprised to know that it was believed that there were male and female mandrakes! The female form had its roots forked and looked like a pair of human legs. It was the one most sought after by everyone, especially the witches. The male, on the other hand, had a single root. Now it is known that it was some normal variation of the root. It was the female form that was carved in the Middle Ages (in Germany and France) into manikins. It was believed that they brought good luck and wealth! It was supposed to be the plant of the Gods, a food of the satyrs, and a magical weapon with miraculous powers. In Germany, peasants took great care of their little mandrakes - bathing them, dressing them, tucking them in at night (sometimes in a coffin) - in order to consult them on important questions. In France, they were considered a kind of elf, called the main-de-gloire or magloire. Often they were stashed in secret cupboards, because possessing one could be dangerous on other counts, too. As I told you earlier, it could expose the owner to the charge of witchcraft and possible execution. It is a historical fact that in 1630, three women in Hamburg were executed on this evidence, and in Orleans in 1603 the wife of a Moor was hanged for harboring a “mandrake-fiend,” purportedly in the shape of a female monkey. In ancient times, it was a common practice to carve these roots into amulets of protection, love attraction, aura purity, or as a sign of magic (depending on the preparation). The planetary rulers of Mandrake were supposed to be Uranus, Mercury, and Pluto. A piece of the root immersed in a chalice of water and set in the moonlight each night until the moon became full, was supposed to create ‘Moon Water’. It was used in purification & lunar rituals. Needless to say, Mandrake also played a part in several very potent sex-magic rituals. Because they were supposed have such magical powers, the roots of mandrake used to be as expensive as gold! Because it was so costly, many other plants were flaunted and sold as mandrake by tricksters. Among the plants which were sold as false mandrake were Ginger, Ginseng, Orchids, Celandine and of course the American and English Mandrakes about which I have told you earlier. All these plants were sold as true Mandrakes, because it was needed for healing and mainly for magic. So commonly was Mandrake associated with magic, that when Lee Falk and Fred Fredericks were searching for a name for their cartoon character having magical powers, they thought the term Mandrake. Now as we all know, the cartoon and comic strip character “Mandrake the Magician” created and developed by them has become a household name!”

“Did the medieval doctors used this root in medicine?”

“Oh yes. It was used for several purposes. It was used as an anodyne or pain reliever much like aconite, belladonna, & coca leaves. It in fact causes nerve endings to lose sensation, making them less aware of pain. It was used as an emetic (a drug which promotes vomiting), causing the stomach to contract and induce vomiting. You might wonder why any doctor would like his patient to vomit at all. Well, if a patient had accidentally ingested a poison, one of the most popular remedies was to cause the patient to vomit, and Mandrake was a very good emetic. Some people used to drink it to inactivate snake poisoning. When used externally, it was supposed to help reduce infections. It is supposed to have laxative properties when ingested in a suspension. It was known to be helpful in easing rheumatism primarily due to it’s pain-relieving properties. It was used to cure sterility, to promote pregnancy, as a narcotic and inducer of sleep. It was usually considered to enhance creativity because it is a narcotic. I may tell you that many narcotics such as opium are supposed to enhance creativity, but it is a fact which is not medically proven. Ingestion of minute prepared portions was reputed to enhance psychic awareness & abilities. When used properly in magical spells mandrake was used to increase sexual desire (aphrodisiac). Its poisonous effects were known to ancient people. It is interesting that Gaius Plinius Secundus (23-79) wrote the following with reference to this plant: ‘If one drinks a large amount of its sap, one is doomed to death. The one who uses it in a normal quantity is exposed to its soporific effect.’ Plinius Secundus’ statement summarizes the effects of the plant, pointing out not only the danger of its use but also the healing effect, which was much exaggerated in the past.
It has also been used as an anaesthetic. In fact many ancient surgical operations are supposed to have been performed under its effect. Surgeons could treat fractures and dislocations, repair hernias, and perform amputations and a few other operations. A mixture of opium, mandragora and alcohol was usually prescribed to deaden pain. I may tell you that all these drugs do cause a remarkable lessening of the sensation of pain, and it is quite possible, that in combination, these drugs worked quite well. I may tell you that a Roman physician reported complicated surgical operations having been performed in Alexandria under the anaesthetic effect of mandrake. Arabian physicians also used it for anaesthetic purposes. In 11th and 12th centuries, mandrake was recognized as an effective painkiller by the famous at that time Universities of Bolonia and Salerno.”

“This is indeed quite remarkable. What are its constituents doctor?”

“The plant contains upto 0.4% of alkaloids. The principle active components of mandrake are scopolomine (hyoscine), atropine, hyoscyamine, apotropine, cuscohygrine, solandrine and mandragorine and some other active tropane alkaloids. It is exceptionally rich in mandragorine (C17H27O3N) which is a powerful narcotic and hypnotic. These active principles are responsible for causing the symptoms, which Sukhram felt. In higher doses, these constituents can cause death due to respiratory paralysis. In 21st Century, the century when we are living, much of the mystical aura around this plant has vanished. Scientific research is going on, on this plant. There is an on-going research project going on in the San Francisco Bay area about the medical uses of Mandrake in treating people with HIV and AIDS.”

“Doctor, now I know enough about Mandrake to understand this poisoning. Tell me why you think Sukhram had been poisoned with Mandrake?”

“Tarun, first of all the typical symptoms, which Sukhram experienced. The police investigated into Mansukh’s antecedents, and came to know that he had studied botany and chemistry in his college. In fact, he was a bright student in these subjects. So it was not very far-fetched for me to deduce that he might have used an exotic plant poison to kill his friend, who also loved the same girl whom he loved. He probably mixed a powder made from the roots of this plant in the alcohol that he brought to Sukhram’s house. I may tell you that Mandrake is very bitter, and has to be mixed with something bitter to mask its taste, and what could be better than alcohol for this purpose. It appears that they both shared the first glass of alcohol together. After Sukhram became a little tipsy, Mansukh who was making the drinks spiked his subsequent glasses with mandrake powder, which he had in his pocket. While I was talking to you, I was examining Sukhram’s blood and internal organs, and I have found substantial quantities of mandragorine in his blood. Look! here comes the police constable. He is coming from Mansukh’s house. I sent him there specifically to look in his backyard, and do you see what he has in his hands. It is a typical Mandrake plant. There is no doubt now, that Mansukh is the culprit. He had these unusual plants growing in his courtyard. The court would have no difficulty prosecuting him, when all this evidence is presented to them.”

 “That is amazing doctor. Without your clever deduction it would have been impossible to say how Sukhram died and Mansukh may have gone scot-free. What are you going to tell me next time?”

“Tarun, next time, I would tell you about a very interesting poison – Strophanthus.”

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(To protect the identity of the individuals, their names, as well as the various dates of occurrence have been changed)

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Captions to the figures:

1. dioscorides.gif: Dioscorides being handed a mandrake uprooted by a dog, which dies in the process.

2, 3, and 4. mandrake_001.jpg, mandrake_002.jpg, mandrake_003.jpg: Root of mandrake, shown in ancient texts as a semi human.

5. mandrake_004.jpg: From an old text, where the root is shown being uprooted by a dog.

6, 7, and 8. plant001.jpg, plant002.jpg, plant003.jpg: True representations of the plant.

(Dr Anil Aggrawal is working as a professor of Forensic Medicine at the Maulana Azad Medical College, New Delhi-110002. His E-mail is dr_anil@hotmail.com, and his website is http://www.fortunecity.com/tattooine/simak/76/default.html. His address for correspondence is S-299 Greater Kailash-1, New Delhi-110048: Phone: 6465460